Next »
Archives of Medical Research
Volume 35, Issue 6
, Pages 465-479
, November 2004
Molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of septic shock
References
- . The danger model: a renewed sense of self. Science. 2002;296(5566):301–305
- . International Sepsis Definitions Conference. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(4):530–538
- . Has the mortality of septic shock changed with time. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(12):2078–2086
- . Trends for bacteremia and risk factors for death in a tertiary hospital in Mexico City. 1981-1992. Gac Med Mex. 2001;137(3):191–202
- . Five year experience with neonatal sepsis in a pediatric center. Rev Invest Clin. 1998;50(6):463–470
- . Molecular biology of septic shock. New Horiz. 1998;6(2):181–193
- . IFN-alpha and IL-18 exert opposite regulatory effects on the IL-12 receptor expression and IL-12-induced IFN-gamma production in mouse macrophages: novel pathways in the regulation of the inflammatory response of macrophages. J Leukoc Biol. 2000;68(5):707–714
- . Protein A and other surface components of Staphylococcus aureus stimulate production of IL-1 alpha, IL-4, IL-6, TNF and IFN-gamma. Eur Cytokine Netw. 1991;2(5):361–366
- . Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes. Nature. 1996;383:787–793
- . Macrophage activation: some questions. Ann Inst Pasteur Immunol. 1986;137C(3):345–351
- . How to eat something bigger than your head. Cell. 2002;110(1):5–8
- . Induction of tumor necrosis factor alpha production by adhered human monocytes: a key role for Fcgamma receptor type IIIa in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43(3):608–616
- . Pneumocystis carinii cell wall beta-glucans initiate macrophage inflammatory responses through NF-kB activation. J Biol Chem. 2003;25:25
- . LPS-binding proteins and receptors. J Leukoc Biol. 1998;64(1):25–32
- . Prostaglandin E2 stimulates AP-1-mediated CD14 expression in mouse macrophages via cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A. J Immunol. 2000;164(10):5403–5408
- . Macrophage catabolism of lipid A is regulated by endotoxin stimulation. J Biol Chem. 1991;266(29):19499–19509
- . Cytokines in context. J Cell Biol. 1991;113(5):981–986
- . Binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to CHO cells does not correlate with LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation. Eur J Immunol. 2000;30(1):211–216
- . Extolling the diversity of bacterial endotoxins. Nat Immunol. 2001;2(4):286–268
- . Lipopolysaccharide activation of the MEK-ERK1/2 pathway in human monocytic cells mediates tissue factor and tumor necrosis factor alpha expression by inducing Elk-1 phosphorylation and Egr-1 expression. Blood. 2001;98(5):1429–1439
- . Pyogenic bacterial infections in humans with IRAK-4 deficiency. Science. 2003;299(5615):2076–2079
- . Bacterial lipopolysaccharide activates nuclear factor-kappaB through interleukin-1 signaling mediators in cultured human dermal endothelial cells and mononuclear phagocytes. J Biol Chem. 1999;274(12):7611–7614
- . IRAK-2 and PI 3-kinase synergistically activate NF-kappaB and AP-1. Inflammation. 2000;24(4):305–316
- . Toll-like receptors; their physiological role and signal transduction system. Int Immunopharmacol. 2001;1(4):625–635
- . Toll-like receptors: lessons from knockout mice. Biochem Soc Trans. 2000;28(5):551–556
- . Leptospiral lipopolysaccharide activates cells through a TLR2-dependent mechanism. Nat Immunol. 2001;2(4):346–352
- . CpG DNA: security code for host defense. Nat Immunol. 2001;2(1):15–16
- . Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature. 2001;413(6857):732–738
- . A Toll-like receptor recognizes bacterial DNA. Nature. 2000;408(6813):740–745
- . Activation of toll-like receptors by microbial lipoproteins: role in host defense. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;108(4 Suppl):S104–S106
- . Mechanism of gram-positive shock: identification of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid moieties essential in the induction of nitric oxide synthase, shock, and multiple organ failure. J Exp Med. 1998;188(2):305–315
- . G(Anh)MTetra, a natural bacterial cell wall breakdown product, induces interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-6 expression in human cytokine expression. J Biol Chem. 1994;269(6):4201–4206
- . Dominant negative down-regulation of endotoxin-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha production by Lps(d)/Ran. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000;97(6):2852–2857
- . Toll-like receptor 4 imparts ligand-specific recognition of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Clin Invest. 2000;105(4):497–504
- . Activation of natural interferon-alpha producing cells by apoptotic U937 cells combined with lupus IgG and its regulation by cytokines. J Autoimmun. 2001;17(1):71–80
- . TREM-1, MDL-1, and DAP12 expression is associated with a mature stage of myeloid development. Mol Immunol. 2002;38(11):817–824
- . Lipopolysaccharide induces physical proximity between CD14 and toll- like receptor 4 (TLR4) prior to nuclear translocation of NF-kappa B. J Immunol. 2000;165(7):3541–3544
- . TREM-1 amplifies inflammation and is a crucial mediator of septic shock. Nature. 2001;410(6832):1103–1107
- . Drosophila MyD88 is an adapter in the Toll signaling pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(22):12654–12658
- . The role of Toll-like receptors and MyD88 in innate immune responses. J Endotoxin Res. 2000;6(5):383–387
- . The apoptotic signaling pathway activated by Toll-like receptor-2. EMBO J. 2000;19(13):3325–3336
- . Pro-inflammatory signaling: last pieces in the NF-kappaB puzzle?. Curr Biol. 1998;8(1):R19–R22
- . NF-kappaB family of transcription factors: central regulators of innate and adaptive immune functions. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15(3):414–429
- . NF-kappaB at the crossroads of life and death. Nat Immunol. 2002;3(3):221–227
- . The Rel/NF-kappaB signal transduction pathway: introduction. Oncogene. 1999;18(49):6842–6844
- . Regulation of DNA binding by Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors: structural views. Oncogene. 1999;18(49):6845–6852
- . Multiple signals converging on NF-kappaB. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1999;11(2):226–232
- . High susceptibility to bacterial infection, but no liver dysfunction, in mice compromised for hepatocyte NF-kappaB activation. Nat Med. 2000;6(5):573–577
- . Therapeutic potential of inhibition of the NF-kappaB pathway in the treatment of inflammation and cancer. J Clin Invest. 2001;107(2):135–142
- . Series introduction: the transcription factor NF-kappaB and human disease. J Clin Invest. 2001;107(1):3–6
- . Inhibition of NF-kappaB activation by pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate prevents In vivo expression of proinflammatory genes. Circulation. 1999;100(12):1330–1337
- . Regulation of an essential innate immune response by the p50 subunit of NF-kappaB. J Clin Invest. 1998;102(9):1645–1652
- . Resistance to endotoxic shock as a consequence of defective NF-kappaB activation in poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 deficient mice. EMBO J. 1999;18(16):4446–4454
- . NF-kappaB: a key role in inflammatory diseases. J Clin Invest. 2001;107(1):7–11
- . Neutrophil activation on biological surfaces. Massive secretion of hydrogen peroxide in response to products of macrophages and lymphocytes. J Clin Invest. 1987;80(6):1550–1560
- . Purification of cachectin, a lipoprotein lipase-suppressing hormone secreted by endotoxin-induced RAW 264.7 cells. J Exp Med. 1985;161(5):984–995
- . The biology of cachectin/TNF—a primary mediator of the host response. Annu Rev Immunol. 1989;7:625–655
- . Processing of newly synthesized cachectin/tumor necrosis factor in endotoxin-stimulated macrophages. Biochemistry. 1990;29(36):8371–8377
- . Monocyte-derived human B-cell growth factor identified as interferon- beta 2 (BSF-2, IL-6). Science. 1988;239(4839):502–504
- . Sequential production of IL-2, IFN-gamma and IL-10 by individual staphylococcal enterotoxin B-activated T helper lymphocytes. Eur J Immunol. 1998;28(5):1534–1543
- . Modulation of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis. Curr Opin Immunol. 1988;1(1):56–62
- . Suppression of Cox-2 and TNF-alpha mRNA in endotoxin tolerance: effect of cycloheximide, antinomycin D, and okadaic acid. Shock. 2000;14(2):128–133
- . Critical roles of myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent proinflammatory cytokine release in early phase clearance of Listeria monocytogenes in mice. J Immunol. 2002;169(7):3863–3868
- . Platelet activating factor and its role in trauma, shock, and sepsis. New Horiz. 1996;4(2):265–275
- . Endothelial cell and hemostatic activation in relation to cytokines in patients with sepsis. Thromb Res. 1999;94(2):95–101
- . Biology of endothelium. Lupus. 1998;7(Suppl 2):S41–S43
- . Lipopolysaccharide-induced E-selectin expression requires continuous presence of LPS and is inhibited by bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein. Inflammation. 1995;19(3):389–404
- . Differential induction of VCAM-1 on human iliac venous and arterial endothelial cells and its role in adhesion. J Immunol. 1993;151(10):5172–5185
- . A functional role of I kappa B-epsilon in endothelial cell activation. J Immunol. 2000;164(6):3316–3322
- . Essential role of P-selectin in the initiation of the inflammatory response induced by hemorrhage and reinfusion. J Exp Med. 1999;189(6):931–938
- . Production of endothelium-derived contracting factor is enhanced after coronary reperfusion. Ann Thorac Surg. 1991;51(5):788–793
- . Interleukin-6 in autoimmune disease. Role of IL-6 in physiology and pathology of the immune defense. Clin Invest. 1993;71(8):664–671
- . Bacterial lipopolysaccharide induces endothelial cells to synthesize a degranulating factor for neutrophils. FASEB J. 1998;12(9):673–684
- . Interleukin-6-induced production of type II acute phase proteins and expression of junB gene are downregulated by human recombinant growth hormone in vitro. Cell Biol Int. 2000;24(2):109–114
- . Concerted participation of NF-kappa B and C/EBP heteromer in lipopolysaccharide induction of serum amyloid A gene expression in liver. J Biol Chem. 1995;270(13):7365–7374
- . Cellular mechanism of intraabdominal abscess formation by Bacteroides fragilis. J Immunol. 1998;160(10):5000–5006
- . Effect of cross-tolerance between endotoxin and TNF-alpha or IL-1beta on cellular signaling and mediator production. J Leukoc Biol. 2001;70(5):821–829
- . Distinct signal transduction pathways mediate nuclear factor-kappaB induction by IL-1beta in epithelial and lymphoid cells. J Immunol. 1997;159(11):5264–5272
- . Inflammatory cytokines induce apoptotic and necrotic cell shedding from human proximal tubular epithelial cell monolayers. Kidney Int. 1999;55(6):2573–2597
- . Tumor necrosis factor (cachectin) is an endogenous pyrogen and induces production of interleukin 1. J Exp Med. 1986;163(6):1433–1450
- . Lymphocyte infiltration in the injured brain: Role of proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci Res. 2003;72(6):726–733
- . Behavior-immunity relationship: the role of cytokines. Rev Invest Clin. 2001;53(3):240–253
- . Neural and humoral pathways of communication from the immune system to the brain: parallel or convergent?. Auton Neurosci. 2000;85(1-3):60–65
- . The role of cachectin/TNF and other cytokines in sepsis. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1991;367:9–24
- . The afferent signalling of fever. J Physiol. 2000;526Pt 3:470
- . Interleukin-10 induces macrophage apoptosis and expression of CD16 (FcgammaRIII) whose engagement blocks the cell death programme and facilitates differentiation. Immunology. 2001;102(3):331–337
- . Transforming growth factor-beta 1 inhibits the production of IL-8 and the transmigration of neutrophils through activated endothelium. J Immunol. 1996;157(1):360–368
- . Evidence for a gamma-interferon receptor that regulates macrophage tumoricidal activity. J Exp Med. 1984;160(1):55–74
- . Macrophages exposed continuously to lipopolysaccharide and other agonists that act via toll-like receptors exhibit a sustained and additive activation state. BMC Immunol. 2001;2(1):11
- . Expression and function of the chemokine receptors CXCR1 and CXCR2 in sepsis. J Immunol. 1999;162(4):2341–2346
- . Chemokines. Introduction and overview. Chem Immunol. 1999;72:1–6
- . Fractalkine (CX3CL1) stimulated by NF-kappaB-dependent inflammatory signals induces aortic smooth muscle cells proliferation through an autocrine pathway. Biochem J. 2003;373(Pt 2):547–558
- . Endothelial cell-to-cell junctions. FASEB J. 1995;9(10):910–918
- . Molecular organization and functional regulation of cell to cell junctions in the endothelium. Thromb Haemost. 1995;74(1):309–312
- . TNF-alpha causes reversible in vivo systemic vascular barrier dysfunction via NO-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Am J Physiol. 1997;273(6 Pt 2):H2565–H2574
- . Thrombin activates nuclear factor-kappaB and potentiates endothelial cell activation by TNF. J Immunol. 1997;159(11):5620–5628
- . Blockade of tissue factor: treatment for organ injury in established sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(9):1200–1209
- . Cell biology of endothelial cells. Hum Pathol. 1987;18(3):234–239
- . Venous thromboembolic pathology. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss. 2001;94(11 Suppl):1318–1326
- . Nitric oxide decreases cytokine-induced endothelial activation. Nitric oxide selectively reduces endothelial expression of adhesion molecules and proinflammatory cytokines. J Clin Invest. 1995;96(1):60–68
- . TNF-alpha-induced endothelium-independent vasodilation: A role for phospholipase A2-dependent ceramide signaling. Am J Physiol. 1998;275(5 Pt 2):H1592–H1598
- . Pathogenesis of vascular disease. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2000;2Suppl 2:S19–S24
- . Endothelial nitric oxide synthase interactions with G-protein-coupled receptors. Biochem J. 1999;343(Pt 2):335–340
- . Nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of vascular disease. J Pathol. 2000;190(3):244–254
- . Endothelial nitric oxide synthase is downregulated during hyperdynamic sepsis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997;1335(1-2):182–190
- . Nitric oxide in sepsis and endotoxaemia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;41(Suppl A):31–39
- . Effect of the nitric oxide inhibitor, L-N(G)-monomethylarginine, on accumulation of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8, and nuclear factor-kappaB activity in a human endothelial cell line. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(5):908–912
- . Induction of nitric oxide synthase and dual effects of nitric oxide and cyclooxygenase products in regulation of arterial contraction in human septic shock. Circulation. 1999;100(2):107–112
- . Interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-1 and IRF-2 regulate interferon gamma-dependent cyclooxygenase 2 expression. J Exp Med. 2000;191(12):2131–2144
- . Metabolic effects of cachectin/tumor necrosis factor are modified by site of production. Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor-secreting tumor in skeletal muscle induces chronic cachexia, while implantation in brain induces predominantly acute anorexia. J Clin Invest. 1990;86(6):2014–2024
- . Modulation of life and death by the TNF receptor superfamily. Oncogene. 1998;17(25):3261–3270
- . Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1beta are responsible for in vitro myocardial cell depression induced by human septic shock serum. J Exp Med. 1996;183(3):949–958
- . Tumor necrosis factor in the heart. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(3 Pt 2):R577–R595
- . Metabolic responses to cachectin/TNF. A brief review. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1990;587:325–331
- . Thoracoscopy and intrathoracic extrapleural lipoma. Chest. 1977;71(1):121
- . Alterations in tissue glucose uptake during the hyperglycemic and hypoglycemic phases of sepsis. Shock. 2000;13(5):379–385
- . Hepatocyte-Kupffer cell interactions in the inhibition of hepatic gluconeogenesis by bacterial endotoxin. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1981;62:99–113
- . Cachectin/TNF-mediated lactate production in cultured myocytes is linked to activation of a futile substrate cycle. Cytokine. 1993;5(5):436–447
- . Impaired energy metabolism in hearts of septic baboons: diminished activities of Complex I and Complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Shock. 1999;11(5):336–341
- . TNF binding protein prevents hyperlactatemia and inactivation of PDH complex in skeletal muscle during sepsis. J Surg Res. 1998;80(1):44–51
- . The systemic inflammatory response syndrome in acute liver failure. Hepatology. 2000;32(4 Pt 1):734–739
- . Mechanisms of hyaluronan-induced up-regulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression by murine kidney tubular epithelial cells: hyaluronan triggers cell adhesion molecule expression through a mechanism involving activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and activating protein-1. J Immunol. 1998;161(7):3431–3437
- . Passive immunization against cachectin/tumor necrosis factor protects mice from lethal effect of endotoxin. Science. 1985;229(4716):869–871
- . Clinical gram-positive sepsis: does it fundamentally differ from gram-negative bacterial sepsis?. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(8):1608–1616
- . Can we reduce mortality in sepsis?. Saudi Med J. 2004;25(3):277–284
- . Protein C/activated protein C pathway: overview of clinical trial results in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(5 Suppl):S194–S201
- . Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor as the expecting sword for the treatment of severe sepsis. Curr Pharm Des. 2003;9(14):1115–1120
- . Inhibiting early activation of tissue nuclear factor-kappa B and nuclear factor interleukin 6 with (1–>3)-beta-D-glucan increases long-term survival in polymicrobial sepsis. Surgery. 1999;126(1):54–65
- . Physiopathology of severe sepsis. Presse Med. 2004;33(4):256–261
- . Shock: What are the basics?. Internist (Berl). 2004;45(3):258–266
- . A new paradigm for the treatment of sepsis: is it time to consider combination therapy?. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138(6):502–505
- . Clinical trials for severe sepsis. Past failures, and future hopes. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1999;13(2):285–297vii
We thank Enrique Espinosa for critical review of the manuscript and encouraging discussions.
PII: S0188-4409(04)00106-7
doi: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2004.07.006
© 2004 IMSS. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Next »
Archives of Medical Research
Volume 35, Issue 6
, Pages 465-479
, November 2004
